Early Civilizations to Modern Age

Important events of early civilizations 400,000 B. C. to 689 B. C. 400,000 B. C. Peking Man exists. 120,000 B. C. Appearance of Neanderthal Man. 40,000 B. C. Appearance of Homo Sapiens. 8000 B. C. Mesolithic Age begins. 4000 B. C. Bronze Age, early civilizations, begin. Agriculture communities begin to develop in China. Eridu is founded near the Euphrates River. 3500 B. C. Settlements and early civilizations established in the Indus River Valley. 3200 B. C. Egypt is united under Narmer. 2600 B. C. Pyramid of Khufu is built. 2370 B. C. Sargon becomes the ruler of Sumer and establishes the Akkadian Empire. Trade and commerce flourish. 2000 B. C. Rice is introduced in China. 1790 B. C. Hammurabi becomes king of Babylon and establishes order and a system of laws. 1730 B. C. The Hyksos take power in Egypt. 1650 B. C. The Israelites settle in the land of Goshen. 1500 B. C. Shang Dynasty rules vast portions of China. Mohenjo-Daro, the early capital of India is destroyed by invaders. Queen Hatsheput rules in Egypt. 1483 B. C. Thutmose III conquers Syria and Sudan. 1380 B. C. Anyang becomes the capital of Shang Dynasty. 1375 B. C. Suppiluliumas I becomes king of the Hittities at the height of their power. 1370 B. C. Amenhotep IV (Akhnaton) takes the throne of Egypt with his wife Nefertiti. 1354 B. C. Tutankhamon becomes ruler of Egypt. 1290 B. c. Ramses II becomes ruler of Egypt. 1286 B. C. The Hittites defeat the Egyptians in the Battle of Kadesh. 1200 B. C. Picture writing emerges in China. 1025 B. C. The Chou Dynasty rules China. 1000 B. C. Hinduism is introduced into India. 930 B. C. Israel established. 705 B. C. Death of Sargon, ruler of Assyria. 689 B. C. Sennacherib of Assyria destroys Babylon. 2. Important events of early civilisations 648 B. C. – A. D. 220 648 B. C. Ashurbanipal builds the library at Nineveh. 600 B. C. The religion of Zoroaster spreads throughout Persia. The Upanishads are completed. 597 B. C. The leaders of Israel are held captive in Babylon. 560 B. C. Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) is born. 550 B. C. Cyrus the great founds the Persian Empire. Confucius is born. 540 B. C. Birth of Mahavira, whose attempt to reform Hinduism gave rise to the Jainist movement. 530 B. C. Death of Cyrus the Great. 525 B. C. Under Cambyses, son of Cyrus, Persia conquers Egypt. 521 B. C. Darius, “king of kings,” takes the throne of Persia. 500 B. C. Greeks in Asia revolt but are put down by Darius. 490 B. C. A Persian attack on European Greece fails after the defeat at the battle of Marathon. 483 B. C. Death of Buddha. 480 B. C. Xerxes, Darius’ successor, continues the war against Greece; he wins in at Thermopylae and takes Athens, but his fleet is destroyed at the battle of Salamis. 465 B. C. Xerxes is assassinated. 359 B. C. Artaxerxes III becomes king of Persia. 334 B. C. After subduing and uniting the Greek cities, Alexander the Great crosses the Hellespont to attack the Persian Empire. 333 B. C. Alexander defeats the Persian army at Issus; Darius sues for peace and then flees. 327 B. C. Alexander the Great conquers India. 323 B. C. Alexander dies at Babylon. 269 B. C. King Asoka brings most of India under his rule. 230 – 221 B. C. Golden Age of Philosophy in China. 222 B. C. Shih Huang gains control of China and encourages trade. Chandragupta founds the Gupta Dynasty and rules in India. 213 B. C. The Great Wall of China is completed. 206 B. C. The Han Dynasty is founded in China. 100 B. C. Buddhism reaches China and rapidly spreads among the lower classes. 220 A. D. The Chinese Empire is split into three separate kingdoms.

Important events in the early civilization of Ancient Greece 400,000 B. C. to 323 B. C. 3000 B. C. Soldiers from Asia Minor land on Greece and settle there. 2200-1400 B. C. Crete at the height of power at Knossos and Phaestus built. 1500 B. C. Achaean kings build stronghold at Mycenae. 1400 B. C Destruction of palaces at Knossos and Phaestus, probably by Greek raiders from the Peloponnesus. Decline of Cretan civilization. 1400-1200 B C. Age of Mycenae. 1185 B. C. Troy destroyed by Achaeans. 1100 B. C. Dorian invasion of Achaean cities. Mycenae destroyed. 1000 B. C. Dark ages of Greece. Durians invade Peloponnesus, Crete and Rhodes; Aeolians invade Thessaly and Boeotia; Ionians from Attica cross to Western shore of Asia Minor. 800 B. C.-700 B. C. Formation of the city states and rise of aristocrats. 800-600 B. C. Colonization begins as Greece becomes overpopulated. 776 B. C. First Olympic games said to be held. 750 B.C. Homer writes The Illiad and The Odyssey. 621 B. C. Draco writes a code of harsh laws for Athens. 594 B. C. Solon is chosen to lead Athenians and replaces Draco’s laws with a code of his own. 561 B. C. Pisistratus becomes tyrant of Athens. 544 B. C. After being exiled, Pisistratus returns and is tyrant again. 528 B. C. Death of Pisistratus. 507 B. C. Sparta invades Attica and brings about the fall of the tyrant sons of Pisistratus. Cleisthenes leads Athens towards democracy. 499 B. C. Athens and Eretria send help to Ionians resisting Darius of Persia. 492 B. C. First attack by Darius against Athens and Eretria. 490 B. C. Eretria is burned in Darius’ second attack. The Athenians win the Battle of Marathon. 485 B. C. Darius dies and is succeeded by Xerxes. 480 B. C. Themistocles becomes leader of Athens, Xerxes defeats Greek army under Leonidas at Thermopylae. Athenians flee to Salamis. The Persian fleet is defeated at the battle of Salamis. 479 B. C. Persians retreat after losing Battle of Plataea to Spartans. 461 B. C. Pericles becomes leader of Athens and the Golden Age of Athens begins. 431 B. C. Beginning of Peloponnesian Wars. Thebans attack Plataea, Athens’ ally. Attica invaded. 430 B. C. Plague in Athens. Athenians depose Pericles and then reappoint him. Attica invaded again. 429 B. C. Pericles dies. Siege of Plataea. 428 B. C. Cleon, leader of pro-war group, opposes Nicias. 425 B. C. Thucydides begins to write history of the war. 422 B. C. Cleon killed in Thrace. 421 B. C. Peace of Nicias signed by Athens and Sparta. 415 B. C. Alcibiades, Lamachus and Nicias command expedition to Sicily. Alcibiades recalled, flees to Sparta. 413 B. C. Athenian forces in Sicily wiped out. 411 B. C. Sparta and Persia sign treaty. 405 B. C. 10,000 Greeks join Cyrus of Persia’s army. After death of Cyrus, the Athenian Xenophon leads the Greeks home. 399 B. C. Death of Socrates. 347 B. C. Death of Plato. 343 B. C. Aristotle tutors the young Alexander, son of King Philip of Macedonia. 338 B. C. Philip invades Greece and wins Battle of Chaeronea. 336 B. C. Philip is assassinated and is succeeded by Alexander, who is elected general of the Greeks. 333 B. C. At battle of Issus, Alexander defeats Darius of Persia. 331 B. C. Alexander conquers Egypt and defeats Persian army at Gaugamela. 330 B. C. Darius dies. Alexander subdues Iran. 323 B. C. After Alexander’s death, his empire is divided into three parts. Antigonus claims Greece.

Important dates and events in Ancient Rome, 1000 B. C. – 476 A. D. 1000 B. C. Phoenicians build Carthage and explore coast of Italy. 800-700 B. C. Six farming villages unite to become the city of Rome. 750 B. C. Cumae, first Greek colony in Italy, settled by refugees. 509 B. C. Romans drive out the last of the Etruscan kings. 353 B. C. Rome expands, conquering the towns of nearby Latium. 312 B. C. Work begins on Appian Way, first Roman road. 280-256 B. C. Rome fights a Greek army under Pyrrhus, wins control of entire Italian peninsula. 264-146 B. C. Rome and Carthage at war. 218 B. C. Carthaginian army under Hannibal crosses the Alps to invade Italy. 204 B. C. The Roman general, Scipio, invades Africa, menaces Carthage. 203 B. C. Hannibal, recalled from Italy, meets Scipio in battle of Zama and is defeated. 196 B. C. Deaths of Hannibal, Scipio. 146 B. C. After nearly three years of siege, Roman troops capture Carthage, enslave its citizens and burn the city to the ground. 133 B. C. Tiberius Gracchus elected tribune, murdered by Senate. 124 B. C. His brother Caius Gracchus elected, passes many reform laws. 121 B. C. The mob turns on Caius and forces him to commit suicide. 107-86 B. C. Struggle for power between Marius and Sulla, which ends only with the death of Marius. 73-71 B. C. Slaves, led by Spartacus, revolt; they are suppressed after two years of fighting. 60 B. C. Pompey, Julius Caesar and Crassus form the First Triumvirate to combat the power of the senate. 58-50 B. C. Caesar, commander of the legions in Gaul, subdues the barbarians; Pompey plots in Rome. 49 B. C. Caesar crosses the Rubicon with his legions; Pompey and the Senate flee; Pompey is crushed at the battle of Pharsalus. 48-46 B. C. Caesar, charmed by Cleopatra, stays in Egypt. 46 B. C. Caesar returns to Rome, begins to consolidate his power and enact reforms. 44 B. C. Caesar assassinated by Cassius, Brutus and other Senators. Civil War breaks out. 42 B. C. Octavius, Antony and Lepidus form the Second Triumvirate and destroy Cassius and Brutus at battle of Philippi. 41-31 B. C. Rivalry between Octavius and Antony develops into war. 31 B. C. Fleet of Antony and Cleopatra beaten by Octavius at the battle of Actium. 30 B. C. Antony and Cleopatra kill themselves; Octavius becomes Augustus. 29 B. C. – A.D. 14 Reign of Augustus; the Empire at peace; the arts and culture flourish. A. D. 14 – 117 A series of emperors rule Rome. A.D. 64 Fire devastates Rome; Nero blames it on Christians A.D. 68 Nero, last of Caesar’s family, commits suicide to avoid assassination at the hands of his guards. A.D. 79 Eruption of Vesuvius buries town of Pompeii under lava. A.D. 106 Legions under Emperor Trajan push the borders of the Empire beyond the Danube River. A.D. 117-138 Reign of Hadrian; trade flourishes; walls built on the borders to stop barbarians. A.D. 138-180 Hadrian’s successors, Antoninus and Marcus Aurelius, govern the Empire. A.D. 167 Barbarians break through the border defenses into Italy and are beaten back with difficulty. A.D. 192-284 Chaos in the Empire; the borders are breached; revolts in the provinces; trade falls off; famine and plague in the cities. A.D. 284-305 Diocletian restores order by making the Empire an armed camp ruled by the legions. A.D. 324 Constantine, a Christian, becomes Emperor. A.D. 326 Constantine begins to build a new capital for the Empire at Byzantium on the Hellespont. A.D. 395 At the death of Theodosius, his two sons divided the Empire between them; it is never reunited. A.D. 406 The Rhine defenses collapse before waves of barbarian invaders; Gaul is overrun. A.D. 410 Visigoths under Alaric capture and sack the city of Rome. A.D. 476 Emperor Romulus deposed by barbarians, bringing the Roman Empire in the West to an end; Caesar’s heirs still rule the East.

Important events of early Christianity 6 B. C.- 400 6 B.C. Probable date of birth of Jesus in Bethlehem, Judea. A.D. 24 Jesus is baptized by John the Baptist and begins his ministry. A.D. 29 The Crucifixion of Jesus. A.D. 30? Paul, while on the Way to Damascus to persecute the Christians, has a vision and is converted; he begins preaching. A.D.45-47 Paul’s 1st mission takes him to several towns in Asia Minor where he founds churches. A.D. 48 or 49 The first church council meets in Jerusalem and decides that non-Jewish Christians are not bound by the laws of Moses, opening the way for Gentile converts. A.D. 50-53 Paul’s 2nd mission to Asia Minor and Greece. A.D. 53-57 Paul’s 3rd mission. A.D. 57 Paul is arrested in Jerusalem and taken to Rome to await trial before Caesar. A.D. 64 Nero blames the fire of Rome on Christians and has many of them killed, including, according to tradition, Peter and Paul. A.D. 133 Jerusalem is destroyed by Roman troops, making Rome one of the chief centers of the church. A.D. 153 Justin writes his Apology defending the Christian faith. A.D. 261 Emperor Gallienus issues the first edict of toleration for Christians, ending persecution for a time. 303 A new wave of persecution begins under Emperor Diocletian, continuing until his death in A.D. 312. A.D. 324 Constantine, the first Christian emperor, begins to build a new capital at Byzantium. A.D. 325 Constantine calls a church council at Nicea to discuss and settle the disputes about doctrine. A.D. 379-395 Reign of Theodosius, who limits citizenship to Christians and outlaws other religions. A.D. 382 Jerome begins his translation of the Old and New Testaments into Latin. A.D. 386 Augustine is converted to Christianity and becomes a priest at Hippo in North Africa. A.D. 390 Ambrose, bishop of Rome, forces Emperor Theodosius to do public penance for a massacre. A.D. 400 The final arrangement of the New Testament is decided. Important events in Byzantium and the Church A. D. 430 – 1453 A.D. 430 Augustine, now bishop of Hippo, dies. A.D. 431 The Council of Ephesus marks the beginning of the split between the eastern and western churches. A.D. 445 The western Emperor Valentinian III endorses the authority of the bishop of Rome, or pope; over the rest of the church. A.D. 455 Vandals capture and sack the city of Rome. A.D. 476 Romulus, the last western emperor, is deposed. A. D. 527-565 Reign of Justinian the Great, who puts down a revolt and becomes an absolute monarch. A.D. 532 Construction begins on the great cathedral of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. A.D. 638 Moslem Arabs capture the city of Jerusalem. A.D. 726 Emperor Leo III bans religious pictures, or icons, leading to strained relations with the pope. A.D.800 The pope crowns Charlemagne king over territory belonging to the empire, increasing the bitterness between East and West. A.D. 867 Pope Nicholas and Photius‚ the patriarch of Constantinople excommunicate each other, splitting the church. A. D. 878 Oleg, regent for the young Prince Igor of the Russians, captures the town of Kiev. A. D. 907 Prince Igor assumes the throne and forces the Byzantine Empire to sign a trade treaty. A.D. 944 A great fleet under Igor attacks Byzantium and is defeated. A.D.990 Prince Vladimir converts to Christianity and makes it the state religion of Kievan Russia. A.D. 1204 Crusaders, tempted by the promises of Venetian merchants, capture and loot the city of Constantinople. A.D. 1240 The Mongol hordes capture and burn Kiev, slaughtering the inhabitants. A.D. 1261 The Byzantines recapture Constantinople, but hold little of their former empire. A.D. 1326 The Ottoman Turks conquer parts of the Byzantine Empire. A.D. 1453 The Turks besiege and take Constantinople, bringing the Byzantine Empire to an end.

Important Events of the East in the Middle Ages 214 B. C. – A. D. 1071 214 B.C. The Ch’in emperors build the Great Wall of China. 206 B.C.-A.D. 220 Trade and the arts flourish in China under the Han dynasty, in the east. A.D. 220-589 China is torn by invasions and civil war in the period of the Six Dynasties 552 Buddhism is officially introduced into Japan and China. 571 The birth of Mohammed happened in the east. 604 Prince Shotoku gives Japan a constitution. 607 Shotoku sends missions to study Chinese culture. 618-907 The T’ang dynasty, one of the “golden ages” of China. 622 Mohammed and his followers are forced to flee from Mecca to Medina in the Hegira. 630 Mohammed’s followers capture Mecca. 632 Death of Mohammed. 642 With the defeat of the Persian Empire, the world of Islam extends from Africa to the Indus. 710-784 The Nara Period in Japan is marked by semi-Chinese culture. 711 Moslem Arabs and Berbers invade Spain and defeat the Goths. 712-756 Hsuan Tsung reigns over China; art, literature and philosophy flourish. 720 The Nihon Shoki, legends of the history of Japan, is written. 750 Rise of the Abbasid caliphs. 751 China loses Turkestan to the Arabs after the battle of Talas. 756 Rise of the Omayyad dynasty in Spain. 762 Al-Mansur founds a new capital for the caliphs at Baghdad. 778 Charlemagne and the Frankish army invade Spain but are defeated by the Moslems at Roncesvalles. 786-809 Harun al-Raschid encourages learning and makes war on the Byzantine Empire. 794 Kammu moves the Japanese capital to the new city of Heian, the present-day Kyoto. 813-833 Reign of al-Mamun, under whom Baghdad becomes a center of knowledge and the arts. 960-1279 Painting and printing flourish in China under the Sung dynasty. 1071 Alp Arslan defeats the Byzantine army and destroys the empire in Asia Minor. Important Events in the East in the Middle Ages, 1099 – 1644 1099 Crusaders invade Palestine and capture Jerusalem. 1185-1333 Japan becomes feudal during the Kamakura period, with effective rule by the warlords. 1187 Moslems led by Saladin recapture Jerusalem. 1189-1192 The “Crusade of Kings” reaches Palestine but fails to conquer Jerusalem. 1206 Temujin is proclaimed Genghis Khan and leads his armies to conquests in Asia and Eastern Europe; a Moslem is made Sultan of Delhi and begins to unite India. 1227 Death of Genghis Khan. 1258 Mongols under Hulagu capture Baghdad and execute the last of the Abbasid caliphs. 1260 Mamelukes under Baybars defeat the Mongols at Ain Jalut, saving Egypt as a refuge of Moslem culture. 1267 Kublai Khan builds Peking. 1274 Kublai tries to invade Japan but is defeated. 1275 Marco Polo arrives in China. 1281 A second invasion of Japan is completely wiped out. 1294 Death of Kublai Khan. 1336-1573 Japan under the Ashikaga shoguns is torn by civil wars. 1368-1644 The Ming dynasty gives China three centuries of order. 1398 Timur captures and sacks Delhi, killing many thousands. 1421 Yung-lo moves the Chinese capital to Peking. 1453 Mohammed II and the Ottoman Turks capture Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire. 1498 Vasco da Gama reaches India. 1520-1566 Suleiman, greatest of the Ottoman rulers, expands the empire and organizes its legal system. 1526 Babur defeats the Delhi sultan at Panipat and founds the Mogul Empire. 1543 Portuguese traders and missionaries arrive in Japan. 1556 Akbar becomes Mogul emperor and consolidates India. 1557 Portuguese build a settlement at Macao on the coast of China. 1632 Shah Jahan begins construction of the Taj Mahal. 1641 European merchants are expelled from Japan. 1644 Beginning of the Manchu dynasty in China.

Important Dates and Events in the West in the Middle-Ages 481 – 1485 481 Clovis is crowned king of the Franks; he converts his subjects to Christianity. 529 Benedict founds the Benedictine order of monks. 752 Pepin the Short, first of the Carolingians, is elected king of the Franks. 771 Charlemagne, son of Pepin, succeeds him and adds to the kingdom through wars of conquest. 778 Charlemagne is defeated at Roncesvalles in Spain by Moslems. 800 Charlemagne is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the pope. 814 Death of Charlemagne; his grandsons divide his empire. 849 The Moslem Saracens invade Italy and are stopped near the gates of Rome. 871 Alfred the Great of England defeats the Danish invaders in the west. 885 Norsemen besiege Paris but the defenders, led by the Count of Paris, drive them away. 910 The monastery of Cluny is founded and begins a reform movement in the church. 911 Norsemen are given permission to settle part of France. 933 The German army stops the invasions of Magyars. 962 Otto the Great of Germany is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. 987 Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, is crowned king of France, founding a dynasty lasting 800 years. 1016 Canute, a Dane, seizes the English throne. 1066 William, duke of Normandy, invades England and defeats King Harold at the battle of Hastings. 1077 Henry IV of Germany is excommunicated and begs the pope’s forgiveness at Canossa, in the west. 1096 Pope Urban II calls for a holy war to free Jerusalem; the first crusade begins. 1099 Crusaders capture Jerusalem from the Saracens. 1122 The Concordat of Worms settles the dispute between the emperor and the pope. 1147 The second crusade. 1152 Frederick Barbarossa becomes emperor; Henry of Anjou marries Eleanor of Acquitaine, uniting much of France under his rule. 1154 Henry of Anjou becomes the first Plantagenet king of England. 1170 Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, is murdered. 1189 Frederick Barbarossa, Richard the Lion-Hearted and Philip of France join the third crusade. 1190 Frederick dies in Asia Minor. 1204 Constantinople is sacked by the fourth crusade. 1212 The children’s crusade. 1214 John of England loses his French possessions at the battle of Bouvines. 1215 The English barons force John to sign Magna Carta; the Dominican monks are recognized. 1223 The Franciscan order of monks is recognized by the pope. 1233 The Inquisition is established in Rome. 1265 Simon de Montfort calls the first English Parliament. 1302 Philip the Fair of France calls the first meeting of the Estates General. 1338 The Hundred Years War between England and France begins. 1340 England destroys the French fleet at the battle of Sluys. 1346 England invades Normandy; The English win the battle of Crecy by the use of the long bow. 1347 The English capture and settle Calais. 1356 The English overwhelm the French at Poitiers and capture King John of France. 1415 The English under King Henry V defeat the French at Agincourt and conquer Normandy. 1420 The Treaty of Troyes gives England much of France and recognizes Henry as the next French king. 1422 Death of Henry V. 1429 French troops under Joan of Arc lift the English siege of Orleans; Charles VII is crowned king of France at Rheims. 1431 The English burn Joan of Arc at the stake as a heretic. 1453 End of the Hundred Years War. 1455-1485 The Wars of the Roses between the houses of York and Lancaster. 1477 Louis XI defeats Charles of Burgundy and begins to unify the kingdom of France. 1485 Henry Tudor defeats King Richard III at Bosworth Field to win the crown of England.

Important dates and events in the Renaissance, 1277 – 1503 1277 Milan comes under the power of the Visconti family. 1293 Florentine guildsmen proclaim their city a republic. 1309 Unrest and war in Rome and Italy. The papal court moves to Avignon in France. 1310 Venice crushes a rebellion and consolidates its power. 1336 The poet Petrarch visits Rome. His interest in the writings of ancient Rome mark the beginnings of Renaissance humanism. 1353 Boccaccio’s book of tales, The Decameron, is published. 1378-1417 The great Church schism. Two popes, in Rome and Avignon‚ each claim to lead the church. 1385 Gian Galeazzo Visconti brings power and splendour to Milan. 1405 Venice begins 75 years of conquests on the mainland as the Visconti holdings break up. 1417 The Council of Constance ends the Church schism. Rome again becomes the one capital of the Church. 1423 In Florence the work of the painter Masaccio helps to establish a new style in art. 1434 Cosimo de’ Medici establishes his family as the masters of Florence, now a great center of art and learning. c. 1440 In Germany the invention of movable type makes possible printed books. 1450 Francesco Sforza, a condotierre, wins Milan and comes to terms with Naples and the Medici. 1453 Constantinople falls to the Turks. 1469-1492 Lorenzo the Magnificent rules Florence in a Golden Age of art and humanism. 1471-1484 Sixtus IV re-establishes the political power of the popes among the rulers of Europe. 1478 The Pazzi Conspiracy threatens the Medici in Florence; it is crushed after two years of heavy fighting 1479-1500 Milan’s Golden Age under Lodovico Sforza. 1493 Leonardo da Vinci completes The Last Supper. 1492-1503 Pope Alexander VI and his son, Cesare Borgia, plot and make war but fail to win an empire for their family. Important dates and events in the Renaissance, 1494 – 1603 1494 The Medici lose Florence as Savanarola leads a movement for religious and moral reform. 1500 French invaders take Milan and imprison Lodovico Sforza. 1504-1508 The court of Urbino is the model for Castiglione’s The Courtier, a book of instructions for gentlemen. 1504-1513 Pope Julius II rallies the Italians to drive out foreign troops. He gives Rome its great age of art. 1508 Raphael begins a series of great paintings for the pope. 1508-1512 Michelangelo paints his great frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. 1509 Erasmus, leading humanist of the northern Renaissance, writes In Praise of Folly. 1513 Machiavelli writes The Prince, a book of instructions for rulers and the first modern book on politics. 1513 Giovanni de’ Medici becomes Pope Leo X and makes Rome a centre for poets and humanists but is unable to deal with the start of the Reformation in Germany. 1515 Francis I is crowned king of France and invades Italy. The Renaissance spreads to France and influences art and literature. 1523 Charles V becomes Holy Roman Emperor. His rivalry with Francis I leads to wars in which Italy often is the battlefield. 1527 The sack of Rome by troops of the emperor marks utter defeat for the pope and Rome. 1531 Charles V and the Medici Pope Clement VII sign a treaty. Florence is given to the Medici; the end of the republic. 1555 Charles V retires and divides his empire in two. 1556 Philip II is crowned king of Spain and the lowlands. He fosters Renaissance art, but his harsh laws lead to a revolt in the Netherlands. 1558 Elizabeth I comes to the throne of England. 1576 The death of Titian marks the decline of the Renaissance in Venice and Italy. 1588-1603 Destruction of the Spanish Armada begins an age of triumph for Elizabethan England, an era of great literature.

IMPORTANT EVENTS IN THE REFORMATION AND AGE OF EXPLORATION, 1415 – 1532 1378 John Wyclif publishes a work calling for church reforms and begins to translate the Bible into English. 1415 The Portuguese defeat a Turkish fleet at Ceuta, opening the way to Africa; Jan Hus, influenced by Wyclif, is condemned as a heretic and burned at the stake. 1418 Prince Henry of Portugal founds a school for mariners. 1432 Portuguese explorers discover the Azores. 1434 Portuguese sailors explore the west coast of Africa. 1487 Diaz discovers the Cape of Good Hope for Portugal. 1492 Christopher Columbus sails west and discovers America. 1497 Vasco da Gama sails to India by way of the coast of Africa. 1498 John Cabot explores the coast of North America for England. 1505 Martin Luther, a young student, becomes a monk. 1506 Death of Columbus. 1513 Ponce de Leon discovers Florida; Balboa reaches the Pacific. 1516 Martin Luther preaches a sermon attacking indulgences. 1511 Luther posts his 95 theses questioning the power of the pope to grant indulgences, on the church door in Wittenberg, Germany. 1519 Luther defends his theses in a debate with Johann Eck; Magellan sets out from Portugal to sail around the world; Cortez invades Mexico and conquers the Aztec kingdom for Spain. 1520 The pope excommunicates Luther, who writes a pamphlet in reply. 1521 The Diet of Worms, under pressure from the pope, declares Luther a heretic and banishes him. 1524 Peasants in Germany revolt expecting help from Luther, but he condemns them. 1521 Henry VIII of England petitions the pope to annul his marriage to Catherine of Spain; the pope, under pressure from the emperor, puts off any answer. 1529 Luther meets with Zwingli, the Swiss Protestant, but they are unable to agree on doctrine. 1532 Pizarro conquers Peru for Spain; England stops paying tribute to the pope. IMPORTANT EVENTS IN THE REFORMATION AND AGE OF EXPLORATION, 1534 – 1634 1534 Parliament passes the Act of Supremacy making the king head of the church and breaking with Rome; Ignatius Loyola founds the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits. 1535 Mercator’s map of the world names the new territories America after Amerigo Vespucci; Pizarro founds the city of Lima, Peru. 1536 John Calvin comes to Geneva and begins to govern the city by the principles of his religion. 1539 De Soto explores the Gulf coast and discovers the Mississippi. 1540 The pope recognizes the Jesuits; Coronado explores western North America. 1542 The pope founds the Roman Inquisition to examine heretics. 1545-1563 The Council of Trent meets to consider reforms of the Catholic Church. 1546 Death of Martin Luther. 1547 Death of Henry VIII. 1553 Mary becomes queen of England, restores ties with the pope and wages a campaign of terror against Protestants. 1558 Elizabeth becomes queen and re-establishes Protestantism; death of Ignatius Loyola, the Jesuit. 1564 Death of John Calvin. 1568 Dutch Protestants begin a revolt against rule by Catholic Spain. 1572 Protestant Huguenots in Paris are slaughtered by Catholics in the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre. 1585 The Roanoke colony, first English settlement in North America, is founded by Walter Raleigh. 1588 Spain attempts to invade England, overthrow Elizabeth, and restore Catholicism with the Armada, but is defeated by Drake and the English navy. 1607 The Jamestown colony in Virginia is settled. 1608 Champlain builds a French trading post at Quebec and discovers Lakes Champlain‚ Huron, and Ontario. 1609 Henry Hudson discovers the Hudson River and Hudson‘s Bay. 1620 Puritans on the way to Virginia on the Mayflower land by mistake in Massachusetts and build a settlement there. 1624 Dutch settlers found the town of New Amsterdam, which later becomes New York.

GREAT KINGS AND IMPORTANT DATES AND EVENTS IN EUROPEAN HISTORY A. D. 1469 – 1624 A.D. 1469 Marriage of one of the Great Kings, Ferdinand and Isabella joins two Spanish crowns. A.D. 1485 A king of great kings, Henry, the first Tudor, defeats Richard III at Bosworth, winning the English crown. A.D. 1492 Granada, the last Moorish stronghold in Spain, falls to the armies of Ferdinand and Isabella. A.D. 1519 Another king of great kings, Charles I of Spain becomes Holy Roman Emperor, founding the Hapsburg dynasty. A.D. 1534 England breaks with the Papacy, making Henry VIII and his heirs sole heads of the church. A.D. 1553 Mary, a Catholic, assumes the English throne and begins to persecute Protestants. A.D. 1558 On Mary’s death Elizabeth becomes queen and re-establishes Protestantism. A.D. 1565 Ivan the Terrible subdues the Russian boyars by threatening to leave the throne. A.D. 1566 The Dutch led by William the Silent, revolt against Spanish domination. A.D. 1571 A Spanish fleet destroys the Turkish navy in the battle of Lepanto. A.D. 1572 Huguenots in Paris are massacred on St. Bartholomew’s Day, starting a religious war. A.D. 1588 The British, under Drake, defeat the threatened invasion of England by the Spanish Armada. A.D. 1594 Henry of Navarre, a former Huguenot, is made king of France at Chartres Cathedral. A.D. 1598 Henry IV issues the Edict of Nantes granting toleration to French Protestants. A.D. 1610 Henry IV is assassinated; his nine-year-old son becomes Louis XIII. A.D. 1617 Louis takes power against his mother’s will and exiles her. A.D. 1618 Prussia and Brandenburg are united under one duke; Protestant Bohemia revolts against the Hapsburg Empire, which begins the Thirty Years War. A.D. 1619 The rebelling Bohemians elect Frederick of the Palatinate their king. A.D. 1620 The Bohemia army is defeated at White Mountain; Frederick flees the country. A.D. 1624 Louis XIII makes Richelieu first minister of France. IMPORTANT DATES AND EVENTS IN EUROPEAN HISTORY A. D. 1626 – 1762 A.D. 1626 King Christian of Denmark invades Germany and is defeated by imperial troops under Wallenstein and Tilly. A.D. 1630 Sweden enters the Thirty Years War under Gustavus Adolphus. A.D. 1631 The imperial forces under Tilly loot and burn Madgeburg and are routed by Gustavus at the battle of Breitenfeld near Leipzig. A.D. 1632 Gustavus is killed in the battle of Lutzen. A.D. 1634 Wallenstein is dismissed from command and assassinated; a Swedish defeat at Nordlingen forces France to enter the war. A.D. 1642 Death of Richelieu. A.D. 1643 Louis XIII dies and is succeeded by his five-year-old son, Louis XIV. A.D. 1648 The Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years War; much of Germany is devastated. A.D. 1652 Louis enters Paris to take control of his kingdom away from Condé and the queen mother. A.D. 1662 Colbert is made finance minister of France and encourages new industries. A.D. 1672 Louis invades the Netherlands but is stopped by the resistance under William of Orange. A.D. 1685 Louis revokes the Edict of Nantes; thousands of Huguenots flee the country. A.D. 1688 William of Orange lands in England and takes the crown from James II. A.D. 1696 Peter becomes tsar and begins to modernize Russia. A.D. 1700 Louis’ grandson Philip is made king of Spain. A.D. 1701 England, Holland and the Hapsburgs declare war on France to prevent Philip from uniting France and Spain under one king. A.D. 1703 Peter builds a new capital at St. Petersburg. A.D. 1714 France loses the war and pledges to keep Spain separate. A.D. 1715 Death of Louis XIV. A.D. 1740 Frederick the Great becomes king of Prussia and occupies Silesia, causing war with Austria. A.D. 1756 The Seven Years War begins; Prussia is invaded by Austria, France, Sweden, and Russia. A.D. 1762 Catherine the Great takes the throne of Russia.

IMPORTANT DATES AND EVENTS IN THE AGE OF REVOLUTION, 1765 – 1791 The American Revolution 1765 The British try to raise money by requiring tax stamps on documents; the colonies protest. 1766 The Stamp Act repealed. 1767 The Townshend Acts impose taxes on imported goods; unrest continues in the colonies. 1770 British troops open fire on a crowd in the Boston Massacre; The Townshend Acts repealed. 1772 A mob burns the British coast guard ship Gaspee; Sam Adams starts the first committee of correspondence in Boston. 1773 Boston patriots dressed as Indians destroy three shiploads of tea in the Boston Tea Party. 1774 In reprisal for the Tea Party the British blockade Boston; the first Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia to consider ways of protesting. 1775 The revolution begins as minutemen fire on British troops at Lexington and Concord; Washington becomes commander-in-chief; British win the battle of Bunker Hill but suffer heavy losses. 1776 British troops evacuate Boston; Congress adopts the Declaration of Independence; Washington crosses the Delaware and defeats the Hessians at Trenton. 1777 The British are defeated in battles at Princeton, Bennington and Saratoga. 1778 France enters the war on the colonists’ side; Lafayette joins Washington’s army. 1781 Washington and a French fleet trap Cornwallis at Yorktown; his surrender ends the war. 1783 Britain recognizes American independence by the Treaty of Paris. The French Revolution 1787 The Assembly of Notables meets; Lafayette demands that the king call the Estates General. 1789 The Estates General meets but the Third Estate declares itself a National Assembly and begins to write a constitution; Parisians storm the Bastille, arm themselves and force the king to return from Versailles to Paris. 1791 The king is captured while trying to flee Paris and begin a counterrevolution and is returned to his palace in Paris. IMPORTANT DATES AND EVENTS IN THE AGE OF REVOLUTION, 1792 – 1815 1792 Austria and Prussia form an alliance against France; the king is arrested and France declared a republic; the Assembly calls a National Convention. 1793 The king is tried and executed for treason; England, Spain and Holland join the alliance against France; Robespierre gains power; the reign of terror begins. 1794 The Terror continues until a coup by moderates brings about the fall of Robespierre and suppression of the political rights of the Jacobins. 1795 The White Terror against radicals begins; Prussia withdraws from the war against France. 1796-1797 Napoleon Bonaparte leads a French army into Italy and defeats the Austrians. 1798-1799 Hoping to cut England off from India, Napoleon lands in Egypt. 1798 England and Russia form a new alliance against France and are later joined by Austria. 1799 Napoleon returns from Egypt and overthrows the Directory, becoming the first consul and dictator. 1802 Peace with England; Napoleon becomes consul for life. 1803 England again declares war on France. 1804 Napoleon is crowned emperor of the French. 1805 Austria, Russia, Sweden declare war on France; Nelson destroys the French fleet at Trafalgar; Napoleon defeats the Austrian and Russian armies at Austerlitz; Austria makes peace with France. 1808 Napoleon invades Spain and makes his brother king; the Spanish, aided by England, revolt. 1809 Austria declares war on France; Napoleon defeats them and captures Vienna. 1812 Napoleon’s invasion of Russia ends in a retreat in which most of the army is lost. 1813 Prussia and Austria declare war on France. 1814 The allies invade France and capture Paris, exiling Napoleon to the island of Elba. 1815 Napoleon lands in France and raises an army; he is defeated at Waterloo and exiled to St. Helena, where he later dies.

EVENTS IN THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND THE RISE OF NATIONALISM 1702 – 1848 1702 Newcomen invents the first practical steam engine, used to pump out mines. 1733 Kay’s fly shuttle is the first major improvement in weaving. 1769 Watt perfects his steam engine, which finds wide use in manufacturing. 1784 Cartwright invents a power loom which revolutionizes the production of textiles and helps the growth of the factory system. 1789 The United States adopts a constitution which gives greater power to the federal government was during the industrial revolution. 1793 Whitney’s cotton gin makes the raising of cotton profitable and the use of slaves spreads in the South. 1794 Federal troops put down the “Whiskey Rebellion” in Pennsylvania. 1798 The Federalists try to put down the Democrats and pass the Alien and Sedition Acts was an industrial revolution. 1801 The Federalists are defeated when Jefferson becomes President and repeals the Sedition Acts. 1806-1822 Revolts gain independence from Spain for most South American countries. 1807 Fulton develops the first practical steamboat, a big event in the industrial revolution 1814 Stephenson invents the first practical steam locomotive. 1823 The Monroe Doctrine warns Europe against intervening in the Latin American countries during the industrial revolution. 1825 The Decembrist revolt by young Russian army officers is easily suppressed by the tsar. 1829 Jackson becomes U.S. President and extends democracy. 1830 A revolution in France overthrows Charles and brings Louis Philippe to the throne. 1831 Mazzini founds Young Italy, a revolutionary society. 1832 The Reform Act in England ends many abuses in the system of elections. 1833 England outlaws slavery in its colonies. 1847 The Ten Hour Act in England limits the hours of work for women and children. 1848 Louis Philippe flees when revolution breaks out in Paris; revolts in Austria, Germany and Italy are put down; Louis Napoleon becomes president of France. EVENTS IN THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND THE RISE OF NATIONALISM 1850 – 1906 1850 The Compromise of 1850 in the US. fails to do away with slavery as an issue between the North and the South. 1851 Louis Napoleon overturns the French Republic and names himself emperor. 1854 The Kansas-Nebraska act marks the break between North and South. 1857 The Dred Scott decision encourages the slaveowners. 1859 John Brown seizes an armory at Harpers Ferry and calls for a slave uprising; his hanging for treason enrages many in the North. 1860 Lincoln is elected President; South Carolina secedes from the Union, followed by the other Southern states. 1861 Formation of the kingdom of Italy; Alexander ends serfdom in Russia; the South fires on Fort Sumter, starting the Civil War; a Union defeat at Bull Run ends hopes for a quick victory. 1862 France invades Mexico and puts it under a puppet emperor. 1863 The tide turns when the South is defeated at Gettysburg and Vicksburg. 1864 Sherman begins his march from Atlanta to the sea. 1865 General Lee’s surrender at Appomattox ends the Civil War. 1866 Prussia easily defeats Austria, paving the way for German unification. 1867 Bismarck forms the North German Confederation, led by Prussia; the Austrian Empire becomes Austria-Hungary; England passes the British North America act, granting Canada dominion status. 1870 Prussia defeats France; Napoleon III abdicates and flees. 1871 The German Empire is formed with William of Prussia as emperor; Parisians revolt and form the Commune but are suppressed; the Third French Republic is formed. 1881 Revolutionaries assassinate Tsar Alexander of Russia. 1884 The Reform act in Great Britain extends the right to vote to all adult males. 1894 Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French army, is falsely accused and convicted of selling secrets. 1906 After widespread agitation, Dreyfus is freed.

Important events and dates – Imperialism and World War I 1841 – 1898 1841 England defeats China in the First Opium War. 1853 Perry visits Japan. 1854 Perry returns to Japan and signs a treaty opening two ports to American ships. 1856 The Second Opium War; English and French win special rights in China. 1857 The Sepoy Revolt is put down and England consolidates her rule in India, considered an event of Imperialism. 1865 With the end of the Civil War, the United States begins to industrialize rapidly. 1866 Completion of the transatlantic telegraph cable. 1867 Japan is reformed by the emperor and begins to industrialize. 1869 The Suez Canal in Egypt and the transcontinental railway in America are completed, opening new markets to industry. 1871 Prussia unifies Germany, becoming the German Empire. 1875 England buys a controlling interest in the Suez Canal. 1876 Bell invents the telephone. 1877 Russia conquers several Turkish provinces. 1878 The Congress of Berlin keeps peace in Europe by giving the powers parts of Turkey. 1882 Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy form the Triple Alliance, pledging to aid each other in case of war; Leopold of Belgium acquires the Congo; Egypt becomes a British protectorate. 1883 France takes Annam from China and combines it with other colonies to form Indochina. 1884 The Berlin conference recognizes the Congo and sets up standards for African colonies. 1894 Japan seizes Korea from China; France and Russia form the Dual Alliance. 1895 The Boers repel the Jameson raid in the Transvaal. 1896 The kaiser congratulates Kroger of the Transvaal on the defeat of Jameson; great indignation in England. 1898-1901 The Boer War. 1898 British and French forces meet at Fashoda in Africa; war between Spain and the U.S.; the U.S. conquers Puerto Rico, the Philippines and annexes Hawaii. Important events and dates – Imperialism and World War I 1841 – 1898 1899 The Boxer Revolt in China is suppressed by the western powers. 1904 War between Russia and Japan; Japan wins and retains Korea; the U.S. helps Panama gain independence from Colombia and begins construction of the Panama Canal. 1905 The kaiser delivers a speech in Morocco, causing a crisis with France. 1907 England joins France and Russia in the Triple Entente. 1908 The Young Turks revolt, restore the Turkish constitution and begin to modernize Turkey. 1911 A German gunboat arrives in Morocco, causing a severe crisis; France cedes parts of the Congo to Germany; Sun Yat-Sen establishes the Republic of China. 1912 Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece attack Turkey in the first Balkan War. 1913 Serbia, Greece, Rumania and Turkey attack Bulgaria in the Second Balkan War. 1914 Serbian terrorists assassinate Ferdinand of Austria; Austria attacks Serbia and World War I begins. German armies sweep into France but are forced back at the Marne; trench warfare begins. 1915 Heavy losses on the western front; Italy attacks Austria; America is aroused when a German submarine sinks the Lusitania. 1916 Germans attack but fail to capture Verdun; the Allies attack along the Somme and gain 7 miles; the cost of the two engagements is over 11/2 _million lives; German and British fleets fight the battle of Jutland. 1917 Germany begins unrestricted submarine warfare: the tsar is overthrown; the U. S. enters the war; heavy losses lead to widespread mutinies in the French army; the Bolsheviks take power in Russia and sign an armistice. 1918 Bolshevik Russia makes peace with Germany; the kaiser is overthrown; Germany and the Allies sign an armistice, ending World War I. 1919 The treaty of Versailles; the League of Nations. 1920 The US. Senate refuses to ratify the Versailles treaty or join the League of Nations.

IMPORTANT EVENTS – TOTALITARIANISM AND THE GREAT DEPRESSION 1861 – 1924 1861 Tsar Alexander II signs a decree abolishing serfdom in Russia. 1881 Terrorists assassinate Alexander; his successor, Alexander III, is more autocratic. 1903 Russian Marxists split into two groups, the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks led by Lenin and his totalitarianism. 1904 Russia and Japan go to war. 1905 Russia is defeated by Japan; widespread discontent flares into open revolt against the tsar after petitioners are cut down on “Bloody Sunday”; the revolt is suppressed with difficulty. 1914 World War I begins. 1917 Heavy war losses and famine lead to a new revolt in Russia; the tsar abdicates and a provisional government takes over which is later led by Kerensky; Lenin, Trotsky and the Bolsheviks gain the support of the soviets and lead them to take over from the provisional government; Soviet Russia begins peace talks with Germany. 1918-1920 Civil war rages in Soviet Russia; the anti-Bolshevik forces are finally defeated by the Red Army under Trotsky. 1918 Russia signs the treaty of Brest-Litovsk making peace with Germany; the western powers sign an armistice; end of World War I. 1919 The Communist International, or Comintern, is founded at Moscow; the Versailles treaty heavily penalizes Germany and causes great bitterness among Germans; formation of the League of Nations, which excludes Soviet Russia. 1920 Italian socialist workers occupy many factories, leading industrialists to fear an immediate revolution and look for ways to prevent it. 1922 Mussolini’s fascists, financed by the industrialists, march on Rome, take over the government and begin a reign of terror against rebellious workers. 1923 Wild inflation ruins the German economy; Hitler and the Nazi party attempt to seize power in the Munich “Beer Hall Putsch” but are easily put down. 1924 Lenin dies; Stalin uses his position as general secretary of the Communist Party to become dictator of Russia; the first Labour government is formed in England. IMPORTANT EVENTS – TOTALITARIANISM AND THE GREAT DEPRESSION 1926 – 1938 1926 English trade unions call a general strike but are forced to return to work after nine days. 1928 Stalin exiles Trotsky and consolidates his power, beginning the first Five Year Plan to industrialize Russia; Mussolini’s new constitution makes Italy a fascist dictatorship. 1929 The stock market crash marks beginning of the Great Depression in U. S. 1931 Spain becomes a republic when King Alfonso flees; Japanese troops invade Manchuria, causing war with China. 1932 The “Bonus Army” marches on Washington and is dispersed by troops under General MacArthur. 1933 Roosevelt becomes president and takes steps to solve the financial crisis of the great depression in America; Hitler is made chancellor of Germany and uses the Reichstag fire as an excuse to suppress communists and others; the Reichstag grants him dictatorial powers. 1934 Fascist riots in Paris follow the Stavisky scandal; Hitler wipes out opponents in the Nazi party in the “Blood Purge.” 1935 The U. S. Supreme Court declares the NRA unconstitutional; Italy invades Ethiopia. 1936 Spanish fascists led by General Franco revolt against the republic, starting the Civil War; Stalin wipes out the Old Bolsheviks in the Moscow purge trials; Roosevelt is reelected by a huge margin ; a Popular Front government is elected in France and begins sweeping reforms ; fascist Italy completes its conquest of Ethiopia and joins Germany in supporting Franco in Spain. 1937 Roosevelt’s attempt to enlarge the Supreme Court fails; Nazi Germany tests new methods of warfare in Spain, bombing the town of Guernica from the air; the French government frustrates plans for a fascist coup. 1938 Jews are arrested and murdered and their homes burned during the “Week of Broken Glass” in Germany; the French Popular Front collapses and the new government reverses many of the reforms it had enacted; the world moves rapidly toward a new world war.

Important events in World War II and its aftermath 1934 – 1944 1934 Dollfuss makes himself dictator of Austria but is killed in an unsuccessful Nazi coup; Chinese Communists begin the Long March, fleeing Chiang’s armies. 1935 Germany wins the Saar plebiscite and begins to re-arm. 1936 Germany seizes the Rhineland. 1937 Chinese Communists and Nationalists form a united front against a Japanese invasion. 1938 Hitler forces Austria to unite with Germany and is given much of Czechoslovakia after the Munich Conference. 1939 Germany and Russia sign a non-aggression pact; Russia invades Finland; Germany invades Poland; start of World War II. 1940 Germany conquers Denmark, Norway, Belgium and the Netherlands; the British are evacuated from Dunkirk; Churchill becomes British prime minister; France signs an armistice with Germany, which occupies half the country; Hitler tries to subdue Britain by heavy bombing attacks, but loses too many planes to continue the Battle of Britain. 1941 Yugoslavia and Greece fall to Germany; Germany invades Russia; Japan invades Indo-china and bombs the American naval base at Pearl Harbor; the United States enters the war. 1942 Japan conquers the Philippines; a German threat to the Suez Canal is turned back at El Alamein; the allies invade North Africa; Japan suffers a serious naval defeat at the Coral Sea; the Russians inflict a crushing defeat on the Germans at Stalingrad, often called the turning point of the war. 1943 The allies invade Sicily; Mussolini is overthrown and Italy leaves the war; but German troops in Italy continue to fight the allied invasion; the U.S. recaptures the Solomon Islands from Japan. 1944 The allies invade Nazi-occupied France at Normandy; French resistance fighters liberate Paris; American forces land in the Philippines; much of the Japanese fleet is destroyed in the battle of Leyte Gulf; the Germans try to break the allied lines in the battle of the Bulge, but are hurled back. Important events in World War II and its aftermath 1945 – 1962 1945 The allies cross the Rhine; the U.S. captures Iwo Jima and Okinawa; Roosevelt dies; Mussolini is killed; Hitler commits suicide; Germany surrenders; atomic bombs are dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki; Japan surrenders; end of World War II; founding of the United Nations; the Nuremberg trials of war criminals begin. 1946 Italy is declared a republic; riots between Hindus and Moslems sweep through India; Communist and Nationalist forces begin battling for control of China. 1947 The U.S. intervenes in civil wars in Greece and Turkey; India and Pakistan gain independence. 1948 Gandhi is assassinated; Arab-Jewish strife increases in Palestine; Yugoslavia breaks away from Russia and closes its borders to Greek rebels; a Communist coup deposes the Czech government; Russia attempts to blockade Berlin, but the Western allies airlift supplies to the city; the U.S. inaugurates the Marshall Plan for economic recovery; the state of Israel is proclaimed. 1949 The UN negotiates a truce in Palestine; Chinese Nationalists flee to Formosa while the victorious Communists found the Chinese Peoples’ Republic. 1950 War breaks out in Korea; the U.S. and its allies intervene on the side of the south, while China supports the north. l951 MacArthur is removed from command in Korea; truce negotiations begin. 1953 A cease-fire is concluded in Korea; Farouk of Egypt is deposed by nationalist army officers. 1954 The French withdraw from Indochina after a serious defeat at Dienbienphu. 1956 Britain, France and Israel invade Egypt, but withdraw after widespread protest; Algerians revolt against French rule. 1958 An army revolt overthrows the French republic and brings Gen. de Gaulle to power. 1961 Generals who oppose de Gaulle’s Algerian policy revolt, but are quickly suppressed. 1962 Algeria gains independence; fighting between India and China.

IMPORTANT DATES AND EVENTS IN THE MODERN AGE 1946 – 1965 1946 Beginning of the “cold war” and the modern age. 1947 NATO is formed; Berlin blockade; Tito defies Stalin; Russian purge trials. 1949 US. Spy trials initiated; communists gain control of China. 1950 War breaks out in Korea. 1952 Eisenhower elected President . 1953 Death of Stalin; he is succeeded by Malenkov; East Berlin revolt put down by Russian troops; a truce is signed in Korea. 1954 The French withdraw from Indochina; the Army-McCarthy hearings mark McCarthv’s decline in influence: the U.S. Supreme Court rules that school segregation is unconstitutional. 1955 Bulganin succeeds Malenkov. 1956 Martin Luther King leads Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott; Gomulka becomes premier of Poland; Khrushchev severely criticizes Stalin; the Suez crisis in Egypt; Hungarian revolt suppressed by Russian troops; President Eisenhower is re-elected. 1957 Russia launches Sputnik I, first successful space satellite. 1958 Khrushchev succeeds Bulganin as premier of Soviet Union; first American satellite is launched; Castro ousts Batista from Cuba. 1960 Belgians leave the Congo, causing turmoil; John F. Kennedy is elected President. 1961 Cuban exiles land at Bay of Pigs but are defeated; Kennedy increases role of U.S. in Vietnam; Berlin crisis; civil rights demonstrations in the U.S.; Russia puts a man into space. 1962 Kennedy confronts Khrushchev in Cuban missile crisis; East Germans build Berlin wall; Pope John calls Ecumenical Council; U.S. sends astronaut into space. 1963 The U.S. and Russia sign a test ban treaty; President Kennedy is assassinated and is succeeded by Lyndon B. Johnson. 1964 The Civil Rights Act is passed by the U.S. Congress; Johnson is elected President by a huge majority; Khrushchev is deposed. 1965 Russian cosmonaut floats in space; Civil Rights voting act is passed in U.S.; President Johnson advances the concept of the “Great Society.”